B(larney Or(l)an Act

B(l)arney Or(l)an Act: Posthuman Identity in Art

Maria Robinson-Cseke

I lay on my back, my head and torso hung precariously over the edge, my hands gripped two metal bars fixed to the side of the castle, and kissed. The experience was that of an amused tourist, accompanied by the fear that comes with hanging over the side of a high building and disgust with kissing the same stone that millions before me had kissed. But as an art educator, I was at Blarney Castle in Ireland, absorbing the architecture and art, and realizing that my glimpse into history was being paralleled by advancement into the Posthuman future. My students and I now live in a western culture that is becoming visually saturated and technologically supreme. We exist in the new media era, playing video games, cellular and virtual chatting; and consuming huge quantities of visual information through the TV, film, and the Internet. A worn stone from medieval history seems quaint but completely alien to where we are headed. Similar mixed feelings of excitement and fear accompany our society’s move into the Posthuman future.

Kissing the legendary Blarney Stone is believed to bring the “gift of gab.” The skill of persuasion and eloquence might be considered an asset to any educator, but it is visual language that is of particular interest to the art educator. The strides made by artists are often visionary and precede scientific advancements. One only has to look at the ideas in the original Star Trek series, like motion-censored doors, wireless communicators, and wall-mounted video screens, to see how creative “nonsense” has become future reality. This future can be considered a Posthuman future, where humans can develop new capacities to realize what has been previously incomprehensible. Artists are the creative thinkers that contemplate unchartered possibilities. One perspective of Posthumanism or transhumanism is the view that the biological human can be enhanced with technology to become a more advanced being. However, technology has been around since humans first invented tools. Posthumanism challenges anthropocentrism, challenges the classical nature/culture divide, and endorses a sense of community based on empathy, accountability, and recognition with non-human agents (Braidotti, 2006: Haraway, 1992). I am positioning the Posthuman as the construct by which humans negotiate between animal and machine. Posthumanism does not have to do away with the human, but rather de-centers it. Posthumans can find a balance between biology and technology; an identity negotiation that is not an easy task. One way to understand this better is to look at how identity issues are tackled by artists during posthuman times. In this paper, I take a critical look at the artwork of two contemporary artists, Orlan and Matthew Barney, to support my claim that Posthuman identity negotiation can lie in the act of art making. Three main questions address my thesis.

• How can identity be a Posthuman condition?
• Can an art act become revolutionary?
• How does the Posthuman condition impact art and art education?

Figure 1: Orlan during surgery

Challenging Standards.

Figure 2: Barney, Cremaster 1 film still

Grounded in the Enlightenment period of the Renaissance, the traditional belief of what it means to be human is a belief in the superiority of rationality, logic, scientific method, unification, free will, and autonomy. Humanism is the search for truth and morality without theological intervention. While humanists may or may not believe in a deity, they generally reject the idea that human affairs can be solved through supernatural intervention. Humanism is an optimistic, progressive approach that places the human being in the position of greatest importance within the world. It is grounded in finding fulfillment of/for the self (Haraway, 1991). It is a familiar and common approach to viewing the world, and finds a supportive home in education. Educational humanism is a trend that sees great importance and humanity in human intellect. This type of humanism sees the possibility of a superior education system where there is an optimum curriculum and pedagogy that will work for all children.

In art education, fulfillment of the self through self-expression has been the premise of the Teacher-as-Artist Model, where creativity and personality development with minimal linkage to art viewing and societal issues are the main goals. The Discipline Based Art Education (D.B.A.E.) model remains humanist in its prescribed steps in art criticism, its preference for Western Art Canon, and its continued focus on self-expression. Although these modernist modes of art pedagogy are still employed by the majority of practicing art-teachers, current educational practices are moving away from a solely humanist approach. The post-modern art education model has developed alongside globalization and demonstrates increased ethical concerns that have risen accordingly. Through visual literacy and critical theory, this form of pedagogy veers from the humanist Grand Narrative, and advocates the acceptance of multiple perspectives. For art-education, Visual Studies is moving in the direction of the Posthuman because it embraces technology through new media. It also promotes multiple perspectives through emphasis on social justice, power relations, and both ethical and political resistance.

One posthumanist belief is that our brains and bodies restrict our potential and progress toward new capacities. This does indicate self-motivation for change through the incentive to be better. It is prudent to note here that this does reveal some blurred borders, since it posits Posthumanism as an endeavor in “instrumental rational”, which is considered humanist. “Our creativity struggles within the boundaries of human intelligence, imagination, and concentration” (More, 1994, p.3). Free from corporeal restrictions, the Posthuman is the symbiosis of the biological human and artificial intelligence through technical enhancement (Hayles, 1999). In this description, the Posthuman is defined as being that is no longer “human,” as technology removes limits of the spatial and temporal restraints of the body (Asma, 2001). There are creative individuals who play with the idea of technical enhancement. The Australian performance artist, Stelarc, fuses his body with medical, robotic, and computer systems to extend human capabilities. He turns his body into a host for art: like creating footage by controlling a moving video camera in his stomach, or enabling viewers to manipulate his facial muscles via muscle-stimulation contacts accessed through a computer terminal. Kevin Warwick, a professor of cybernetics, has implanted a microchip in his arm that communicates with computers in his environment, which respond by turning on lights and opening doors as he approaches. Warwick believes that human existence is seen more as an accident rather than an inevitability (2000). The list of artists working within a Posthuman framework is growing. Two artists of particular interest and focus for this paper are Orlan and Matthew Barney.

Orlan is a French performance artist who has fused biology and technology. She has managed this through a series of nine widely publicized and directed plastic surgeries/performances beginning in the early 1990’s, called The Reincarnation of Saint Orlan. Participants in the surgical performances were frequently dressed in designer costumes; and props like fruit (figure 1), plastic pitchforks, and skulls were placed in the operating room. She would read passages from selected texts on topics like psychoanalysis and feminism under local anesthetic, and create drawings out of her blood during the procedure. She would converse with viewers during surgery, answering questions received through phone or e-mail. She began to transform her face by adopting facial features of ideal beauty dictated by art canon. She had her mouth changed to that of Boucher’s Europa, her chin like Botticelli’s Venus, and her forehead like an exaggerated Leonardo’s Mona Lisa. The forehead implants were deliberately enlarged and somewhat resemble demonic horns (figure 7). One of her messages, among others, has been that technical and medical advancement can be advantageous, but the process is horrific. Ideal beauty is unattainable and becomes a commercial commodity. Her artistic intent has been both feminist and psychoanalytical and has resulted in a postmodern self-portrait via her body as a “ready-made” (Asma, 2001; Faber, 2002; Orlan, 2007). Orlan’s art extends beyond the performance, with blood drawings, photographs, and surgical remains preserved in jars, exhibited, and sold afterward. Her later work consists of digital manipulations of her own face with various cultural beauty ideals like pre-Columbian, North American aboriginal, and African (figure 4). Orlan defines her Carnal Art as anti-conformist self-portraiture that is explored through the technology of the time (Orlan, 2007).

The second artist that I take up is Matthew Barney. Initially, his place within this discussion about Posthumanism may seem less obvious. He does not use technology within his own body the way Orlan or Stelarc might. He uses technology in the multimedia process of filmmaking, in thermoplastic set/character building, and in elaborate costume making. Barney is a performance artist who takes up Warwick’s idea that the human is an accident and always evolving. Barney’s largest body of work is the Cremaster Series. This is a series of five, feature-length, elaborate, experimental films, produced out of sequence. Although the sequence of the films and much of their content has been planned by Barney, the fact that they are out-of-order suggests the idea of unpredictable, non-linear, accidental creation. Barney works between desire, discipline, and productivity. He foregrounds sports and its erotic undercurrents (Keller & Ward, 2006; Yablonski, 2006). With his attraction to wetness (Rosenberg, 2006), Barney explores the body and sexuality through the frequent use of petroleum jelly in many scenes, directing particular emphasis toward the meditation of sexual difference. Through multiple role-playing, Barney explores sexual difference by transforming, often his own body, from one gender into another. The term “cremaster” refers to the muscle in the male that suspends and draws up the testicles. This muscle controls the metaphorical ambiguity between male and female.

In a still image from Cremaster 1 (figure 2) the main character sits with her legs apart, while blocking view of her genitalia with her hands. The spectator is not privy to whether the cremaster muscle is at work here. Cherries outline Barney’s field emblem for “restraint,” an oval bisected with a horizontal bar. The “cherry” has been known to symbolize the female hymen. This representation of virginity is further developed by the woman’s white dress: just as the western bride traditionally wears white as a sign of purity. The emblem itself might easily represent not so much the intercourse, but the interface of the female and the male. This technological term can oppose the idea of virginity as a state where one can take from the other. Instead, the interface is a surface regarded as the common boundaries of two bodies.

Any boundary crossing is an unexpected chance happening rather than an expected continuity of something pre-decided. Posthuman art uses technology or arresting images to promote discontinuity, and according to Robert Pepperell (2005), good art contains an element of discontinuity. Matthew Barney discontinues the expected through grandiose performances. They grow out of the unexpected resistance of no longer subscribing to the norms of more traditional artistic styles.

Figure 3: Barney, make-up for Cremaster 4

Imperfecting Identity.

Figure 4: Orlan Tricéphale

Identity has been defined as the condition of being, where the self is a force that matters in the world (Bracher, 2006). While it might be easier to imagine a Posthuman “condition of being” that is technologically enhanced, like a virtual avatar persona, a Posthuman identity can be viewed differently. Conscious questions of personal identity are understandably very humanistic and self-centered. The effort to maintain one’s identity is the motivating force that is the root of behavior. However, more often identity perception and maintenance is a Posthuman circumstance that works at the unconscious level. Personal awareness is minimal compared to the parts of ourselves of which we are unaware. Even below the subconscious, the unconscious is of greater importance and is the seat of identity formation and negotiation. By accepting identity negotiation as a largely unconscious phenomenon as it delves below human consciousness, then identity can be seen as a Posthuman condition.

Psychoanalysis is a way to investigate the relation of the conscious and unconscious psychological processes. While Freud and Jung treated the unconscious as the site of primal drives to be tamed through the psychoanalytic treatment of psychic conflict, Jacques Lacan viewed the unconscious as structured by language. The traumatic truth speaks out in the unconscious. Lacan’s psychoanalytic practice and theory forces a person to face the most radical dimensions of their social and libidinal predicament; of their human existence (Žižek, 2006).

Orlan clearly demonstrates the importance of Lacanian psychoanalysis to her art by reading texts on the topic, under local anesthetic, during some of her performance surgeries. Speaking of her witness to her own surgeries, Orlan makes direct reference to Lacan’s mirror stage in her Carnal Art Manifesto. “I see myself all the way down to my viscera (entrails), a new mirror stage” (Orlan, 2007). Lacan’s “Mirror Stage” is a stage of early human development when the young child sees her/his image for the first time as whole. The child knows s/he is seeing a reflection of who s/he believes her/himself to be, so is aware that the image is not a true representation of self. However, the child wants more than anything to be whole, so adopts this “Imaginary” perception of the self. With this Imaginary image intact, the individual continually reinforces this identity. Orlan speaks of the privilege of seeing herself differently than her original Mirror Stage provided.

Not unlike Orlan’s Tricéphale image (figure 4), Lacan explains one human psyche as having three forms or registers (Lacan, 2002). Maintaining an identity is negotiating a balance in these three registers. The previously mentioned Imaginary register, of the Mirror Stage, is the part of the self defined by visual representation. It is how we believe we are. The second is the “Symbolic” register. It is the conscious part of the self that is defined by the language of society. It is who we know we should be, based on cultural boundaries and societal rules. The third is the “Real.” The Real register is the remaining part of the self, defined by affect and gut-response. It is completely unconscious and we are generally unaware of its presence. It reveals itself periodically, briefly, and beyond our control. The Real is the most allusive of the three Lacanian registers, and is the root of our human desires and trauma. Orlan recognizes the human desire to transform the body, fed by Symbolic societal ideals of beauty. She has chosen to become a parody of this unrestrained desire in her performances (Faber, 2002). Once the recognition is made, the body parts and the still images of the once visceral opened body, now in a gallery and sold as commodity, redefine the Imaginary and a new self-image is created. The Real of the trauma of surgery recedes back through a fissure in the identity structure.

Matthew Barney’s split image (figure 3) helps to illustrate the spilt, or lack of wholeness, in a subject’s identity. The attractive, “realistic” half is reminiscent of Barney’s modeling days. It contrasts with the disturbing, constructed, painted satire half. However, this second enhanced half is perhaps more Real. It is unexplainable, off-putting, and evokes an affective gut response from the viewer. It presents a creature whose desires are largely unknown. The premise of the entire Cremaster series (Barney, 2007) is a search for masculine identity, while digesting role models, father figures, sexual differentiation, and heteronormativity. The series embraces the Symbolic, but all the while negotiating the Real by seeming to postulate, “save me from myself” (Keller & Ward, 2007, p.12). Barney’s embrace of Hollywood and characterization is “something more like an amorous half-nelson” (Keller & Ward, 2006, p.7). It is comparable to the experience at Blarney Castle. The Symbolic as tourism and education is fractured, just for a moment, by the fear of falling: the Real. The Real is the unconscious and the uncontrollable: the posthuman. Within this Posthuman condition, the boundaries of selfhood change when consciousness no longer guarantees self-existence (Hayles, 1999). Hayles defines the Posthuman as postconscious (1999, p.280) when there is a shift in the site of identity from brain to cell, or from rational thought to animal instinct. The effort to maintain identity is manifested in the Freudian drives of libido and aggression (Bracher, 2006); both prevalent topics in Barney’s work.

Figure 5: Giant, Cremaster 5, film still

Acting in Context.

Figure 6: St. Orlan / St.Teresa

In challenging standards and negotiating identity, resistance must take place to induce change. In A Thousand Plateaus (1987), Deleuze and Guattari refer to small cellular changes as molecular lines of flight in relation to assemblage. They use the term becoming, which was originated in Heidegger’s idea for a constant progression in a technological rational driven society (Heidegger, 1993), to describe this change. For them, becoming is not a resemblance, imitation, or identification. Becoming is concerned with an alliance, but produces nothing other than itself. Becoming is not an evolution, but instead, an involution. “Becoming is involutionary, involution is creative” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1987, p.238). Here, involution is an instance of complicated involvement that is both productive and original change. While instrumental productive change is typically assumed to be humanist, original change that stems from the Real can be considered posthumanist. Žižek believes an act of absolute freedom is central to change, and a true sense of becoming. He maintains that the act is the only event capable of reconfiguring the Symbolic (Grigg, 2001; Žižek, 1992). An act of absolute freedom must disturb the Symbolic order and rupture the Real, by being radically disruptive, transgressive, and even unethical (Dean, 2006). The act does not only transform the subject, but must also be unintentional, undemocratic, risky, and violent. Art making can be a political, absolute act if it is radically disruptive and unplanned. Art needs to be revolutionary if it is to create change.

Both Orlan’s and Barney’s work disrupt. Orlan believes that art must disturb both the artist and the viewer, forcing us to question its deviance and social project (Orlan, 2007). The glutinous petroleum jelly in Barney’s work is so evocative of bodily fluid that its transgressive and tactile presence arrests the viewer. When Orlan began her performance surgeries, she was a pioneer. Viewing open surgery is certainly disturbing and the violence to which she subjects herself forces a visceral understanding onto the viewer (Faber, 2002). Whether the art acts lack ethics and planning are more debatable. While the surgeries are not defined as medically unethical, there are questionable areas like, beneficence, non-maleficence, and dignity. Any surgery, as well as set and costume design, require planning. The surprise is in Orlan’s own bodily reactions to the procedure, and in the immediate audience participation. Orlan and Barney are both gutsy, attempting to access the Real. They are able to transgress through their own courage, and through the medium of the body. Barney’s own father admitted, “(Matthew) doesn’t seem to have some of the fears the rest of us do. He seems to go straight at it and find a way to do it” (Shaffer, 2003). The viewer consumes Cremaster, with its elaborate costumes, candy-colored sets, and excessive production (figure 5); while Cremaster simultaneously consumes the viewer. Barney controls the consumption of the viewer by using characters that exist in our memories through myth, film, and fairy tale. Through layering suggestion, he prevents stereotyping, not allowing the viewer to settle in one meaning (Freedman, 2003, p.60). Both artists are able to question the restrictions and limitations of the Symbolic. Orlan questions patriarchal ideal beauty and Barney questions consumption.

Identity is determined through language, and information patterns for identity exist in terms of context through inclusion and exclusion. Full identification makes the link between the physical person and the informational pattern. Art emerges out of a search for pattern. From a Posthuman perspective, informational pattern is privileged over material evidence or embodied enaction. However, Hayles stresses that embodiment is the “essential enabling ground for human existence” (2000, p. 51). “(E)mbodiment makes clear that thought is a much broader cognitive function depending for its specificities on the embodied form enacting it” (Hayles, 1999). Context determines what specificities are included or excluded, so directly affects identity. Orlan and Barney create a set of circumstances in which their art occurs. The characters embodied in their artwork determine a context for their art message. In Cremaster 5, one of Barney’s characters is the Queen’s Giant (figure 5). In a climactic moment, with ribbons attached to his scrotum, the cremaster muscle descends the testicles and the Giant emerges as a fully differentiated state (Barney, 2007). In this context, Barney uses patterns of identification to create a character that exhibits the process of sexual differentiation. This process or act speaks to Barney’s negotiation with his identity structures regarding gender. Likewise, in a photograph, St. Orlan (figure 6), dressed in sculptural drapery, contrasts with Bernini’s sculpture of St. Teresa in Ecstasy. Though appearing to embody St. Teresa, Orlan’s context questions the hypocrisy of the female image in patriarchal canon. With one breast exposed, a comparison can be made between the nursing Madonna and the single breasted Amazon warriors to the pinup and prostitute.

Barney and Orlan manipulate the context of artifacts from their productions/performances through exhibition and capitalism. The act of changing context is an act of manipulating meaning and negotiating identity. Barney celebrates commodity by producing prop-relics that are ostentatious but are remodeled, becoming useless in their original purpose, like the stiletto shoe in Cremaster 1, with a spout at the toe (figure 2). But in this celebration is critique. Barney uses blockbuster film scale and cost, but has only shown his films in gallery settings rather than multiplex theaters. Cremaster 3 was filmed in the Guggenheim museum in New York. In this case, the museum becomes both a relic and reliquary for itself. Orlan exhibits and sells reliquaries; bits of her body tissue in jars. The context of this tissue changes as it moves from part of a whole to pieces on display. Orlan negotiates her own identity from an imagined whole to an exposure of the Real resulting in the body in pieces. To succumb to capitalism by selling pieces of the self is to blatantly demonstrate our attachment to the Symbolic, and the part it plays in the divided subject.

Figure 7: Orlan as monster

Emerging Ontology

Figure 8: Barney as Apprentice in Cremaster 3, film still

Making it is not the same as controlling it. This can be said for technology, art, and education. Like the fate of the Entered Apprentice in Cremaster 3, getting his teeth bashed in (figure 8), hubris could result in disastrous consequences. With the fear of our own arrogance, comes the distopic fear that we will be controlled by technology. Both Barney and Orlan are advocates for relinquishing at least some control. Orlan recognizes societies fears; “We think that the sky will fall on our heads if we touch the body” (2007). As Orlan’s surgery performances progressed, she faced this fear and began to create a mutant body. Through computer generated images she combined her own body machine with virtual manipulations. In Figure 7, Orlan embodies the bride of Frankenstein through a disembodied head. The mutant body evolves into the head of a monster. She is becoming monster. The line drawings simultaneously resemble Frankenstein’s monster as well as computer circuitry on the face. Orlan parallels becoming monster with becoming machine. Art is a constant in becoming. So too are technology and humanity. Diamond and Mullen (1999) wrote a poem about art as inquiry, ending:

The Posthuman condition is a phase in art’s involution of becoming. I advocate that art is part of our ontology. It is an active component in the system for how we exist. As Žižek proposed, an act that is revolutionary, that is to change the Symbolic in human identity, is out of control. Like Frankenstein’s monster, revolutionary art must be out of control. Only then will it change human identity. If art is used as resistance, inquiry, and education, then a lack of control is a proponent for all. It seems the academic world experiences the most difficulty with art as research because of this lack of scientific control. Likewise, the educational institution is built on control. Its efforts to standardize tests, enforce adherence to written curriculum, even pedagogical practices like classroom seating and a schedule bound to the clock, all speak to the importance of control. I am by no means suggesting that these practices are all detrimental to students, and they certainly make teaching easier, but I am proposing that only with a relinquishing of some control, can change take place. Change is a requirement for nature, improvement, and the unfolding of the Posthuman. When a new Posthuman perspective opens up to educators, we can entertain the possibility of looking at our identity, our role, and our influence with greater breadth and less ego-centrism. At least we might gain a better understanding of our own Imaginaries.

The Posthuman views the body as the original prosthesis; a device that substitutes or supplements a defect. The prosthetic process strives for improvements as it continues and extends beyond what exists before. In Barney’s still image of the Apprentice (figure 8), a satin cloth extends from his mouth. Like a prosthetic, the “healthy”, peach-colored cloth, replaces his injured gums and teeth. The artist’s virtual prosthetics, like video and computer graphics, replaces the paintbrush. The educator’s Posthuman prosthetics, like online teaching and smart boards, replace ditto copies and actual library visits. Art educators, by taking up Visual Studies can be open to our changing society and changing identities as individuals and humans. Through an awareness of Lacanian psychoanalysis, we can increase our understanding of identity formation in our students, society, and ourselves. In Radical Pedagogy: Identity, Generativity, and Social Transformation (2006), Mark Bracher suggests specific methods for teachers to accomplish this. He unveils identity-undermining pedagogies, and then defines culturally inclusive identity structures that could successfully be taken up by teachers. Teachers can provide bridging experiences so that current student identities can incrementally enact and transform to become more complex and inclusive (Bracher, 2006). Art educators, in particular, can introduce students to artists’ work that, as a form of inquiry, investigates the Posthuman condition. We can broaden our definitions of art to include not just aesthetics, but modes of social change. In turn we can encourage our students to make art that is not completely controlled. We can allow room for invention and the possibilities of chance that may lead to change. Only radical art making can be revolutionary. The rest is mediocre. The debate as to whether life imitates art or art imitates life is not taken up here. Rather, it is that Posthuman art and life impact one another, and education grows out of both. All disrupt the system in how we exist as artists, teachers, students, and embodied humans. If education is a human endeavor, then we become more humane by "stepping away" a little bit from what it means to be human. In this way, education becomes a Posthuman endeavor. Education in the arts and humanities that explores the Posthuman with students, steps outside of the box and looks at humanity and identity from a new perspective.

Orlan and Matthew Barney create revolutionary artwork to negotiate their identities toward a Posthuman existence. Revolutionary art induces becoming something new through change; change in society, and change in human identity. This involution of becoming is brought about by an act of absolute freedom. Barney and Orlan illustrate that this act can be accomplished through art that disrupts boundaries set up by the Symbolic. This art ruptures or jolts through affective emotion, the Lacanian Real, much like the fear of dangling from Blarney Castle. And it is at the Real that the human becomes post. It is at the level of the body, the cell, that the self must balance between being authentic and being artificial. It is a negotiation between being animal and being machine. It is a molecular becoming of something new, a part of something more inclusive than our own self-importance. The Symbolic is then reconfigured through pattern, embodiment, context, and control. The era of Posthumanism is like the Lacanian unconscious truth, it may be an unbearable truth, but we have to learn to live with it (Žižek, 2006). In fact, the sky has not fallen on our heads. Instead it is full of possibilities of who we will become. Challenging standards and striving for improvement through technology and education is only the beginning. For art education, emphasis becomes less on self-expression and art for art sake, and more on cultural awareness and a contribution to a collaborative history of art. As artists, educators, and scholars, we would do well to continue our Posthuman involvement by embracing our future, lurching forth, and running with it.

Images:

Figure 1: Orlan, surgery image. Retrieved on August 31, 2008, from http://www.burrac.com/ah/45/Orlan,%20Mouth%20for%20Grapes,%201990.jpg

Figure 2: Barney Cremaster 1 image. Retrieved on August 31, 2008, from http://www.acmi.net.au/global/images/lib/c1_cremaster.jpg

Figure 3: Barney, make-up for Cremaster 4 image. Retrieved on August 31, 2008, from http://www.govindagallery.com/pages/exhibitions/seliger_05/seliger_gallery/images/matthew_barney.jpg

Figure 4: Orlan Tricéphale image. Retrieved on August 31, 2008, from http://www.artpool.hu/harmas/oszi/nevek/orlan.html

Figure 5: Barney as Giant in Cremaster 5 image. Retrieved on August 31, 2008, from http://www.bloggers.it/Aurelogia/itcommenti/mb.jpg

Figure 6: St. Orlan/St. Teresa image. Retrieved on August 31, 2008, from http://www.english.ucsb.edu/faculty/ecook/courses/eng114em/saintorlan.JPG

Figure 7: Orlan as monster image. Retrieved on August 31, 2008, from http://oldsite.vislab.usyd.edu.au/education/schools/guests/sharon/orlan_welcome.jpg

Figure 8: Barney Cremaster 3 image. Retrieved on August 31, 2008, from http://siteimages.guggenheim.org/gpc_work_large_60.jpg

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